The following Education Tip explains how stereotypes and prejudices are formed and their connection to a lecturer’s expectations of students. It also reflects on how these expectations may colour your interactions with students, and how to avoid bias and microaggressions.  

Stereotypes and Prejudices: Origins 

“The problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete.”

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichi (uit: TEDtalk ‘The danger of a single story’)

We all hold stereotypical beliefs. They are part of a normal neurologial process because our brains make decisions rapidly. We do so, for instance, by categorising others based on (outward) characteristics such as gender, origins, skin colour, age, sexuality, language etc. We form images of others based on previous experiences, the most common discourse or dominant idea. This image is often incomplete, unnuanced or one-sided and disregards the unique identity of the other person. 

Such images become problematic when accompanied by a value judgement used to dismiss or disparage specific people. This is how prejudices come into being. Because we do not stop to think and use our perspective as the norm, prejudices are often formed against people who differ from us in appearance or do not belong to the so-called in-crowd. 

Stereotypes, in other words, are simplified stories that have come to dominate the general discourse.  They give us deep-seated ideas on what is good, normal and self-evident. To avoid stereotypes, regularly question your perspectives, opinions, values, norms, and perceptions of others.

 

The Correlation between Stereotypes, Prejudice and Expectations and Why Setting High Expectations is Important

Research has shown that treating students differently based on their otherness does not happen intentionally. It is largely an unconscious process and occurs quite regularly. Lecturers often hold a fixed image of students, shaped by stereotypes and prejudice. More specifically, lecturers often tend to have lower expectations for students from minority groups. If students with specific diversity characteristics (gender, social background, migration background, mother tongue, disability...) generally underachieve, this idea will (unintentionally) come to dominate and colour the expectations. You might feel inclined to believe that foreign-language speakers or students with a disability are less likely to pass your course unit. 

 

Lecturers might be prone to treat students whom they believe will underachieve differently. For example: a student who usually performs well gives an incorrect answer. You will be more inclined to encourage that student to look for the correct answer (‘Think again’) while you might not as easily be inclined to do so with a student you expect to underachieve. Students struggling to fit in may be deeply discouraged because it will make them feel intellectually inferior or isolated. They will experience a (greater) sense of uselessness: they will be led to believe they do not stand a chance and will feel out of place. This sense of uselessness, in turn, will affect their motivation and learning achievements, and in the end, will result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. To break this cycle, it is essential to set high standards for all students. Students indicate that they feel more motivated when they feel lecturers truly believe in their talents and skills, boost their academic self-confidence, and encourage and stimulate them.

 

It is important to remain realistic and follow the intended learning outcomes of your course unit. Be transparent and explicit about your expectations. A powerful message to your students would be that it is your explicit desire for everyone to pass the course unit and that you believe this is possible as long as students apply themselves fully. 

What is Bias and How to Avoid it?

 

We speak of bias when the same fact or behaviour is (subconsciously) treated, judged or assessed differently. This behaviour or assessment is based on one or more characteristics and therefore subject to bias. It often results in special treatment of the in-crowd or majority group, or at least a more positive attitude towards them. We are not always aware of the bias we may have. In such cases, we speak of an unconscious or implicit bias. A bias can also emerge if we have certain ‘blind spots’ or look for elements to confirm existing beliefs or a dominant idea. This is called a confirmative bias.  

A few examples:

Men and women in management positions face value judgements based on their family status. For a man in a management position, his family status (the fact that he has a family) will often be seen as an element of support and stability. For a woman, that same fact will be considered an extra burden and possibly difficult to combine with her career. Bias arises when this difference in perception affects a selection procedure.

A student testimonial:

“Our group contains various working students. They come to class once they finish work, which sometimes makes them late. The lecturer knows this but never calls them to account.  I, on the other hand, was late only once and was called to account immediately. Because my mother is seriously ill, I take care of my younger brother and sister. That day, I had missed my bus.

It is difficult to avoid bias precisely because it is based on commonplace ideas (or ideas that have become commonplace) and are often implicitly part of your behaviour. By regularly reflecting on your interactions with students, however, you can learn to identify biases and blind spots. Ask yourself the following questions:

• to whom do you give the floor in class? Are all students allotted equal speaking time? Do you give credit to the answers of all your students?
• which students do you notice more than others? Do those students look like you, or quite the contrary? Do those students behave excellently, or quite the contrary? And if you notice specific students: what do you see, what remains hidden? Do you recognise and acknowledge the students’ social and cultural capital?
• who will you call to account (and when) if there is a disturbance in class? Do you act similarly for all students in the same circumstances?

What are Microaggressions?

 

Microaggressions are very subtle (and often subconscious) forms of racism, sexism, or LGBTQ+-phobia. Microaggressions are generally intended to be well-meaning remarks, often taking the form of compliments, or behaviour in commonplace interactions. Indirectly, however, they highlight a person’s ‘otherness’ (i.e. that they do not belong to the reference group) or point out one’s lower expectations for that particular person. They are therefore not as innocent as they may seem. When a person is confronted with them repeatedly, microaggressions can have a detrimental effect on their confidence and self-esteem. This may then cause frustration and a sense of isolation.  

Consider the following: 

The phrase “You are very proficient in Dutch” is a lovely compliment for a student who has only recently begun to learn the language. The same compliment may be highly offensive if the student with a migration background on the receiving end was born and raised here. Please use such compliments only if you are sure of yourself. 

To conclude: stereotypes, prejudices, bias and microaggressions are a widespread and subconscious part of our remarks and behaviour. The following tips will help you become more aware of them and avoid them:

• take time to evaluate your vision, beliefs and perspectives regularly as they may unintentionally colour how you view and assess your students;
• carefully consider assumptions you might have based on a student’s background, appearance or prior knowledge. always assess students based on their real achievements. Do not consider previous achievements, and avoid making value judgements about a student’s appearance. Do not jump to conclusions based on the (non)verbal behaviour of students;
• beware of microaggressions. Be careful with well-meant compliments that might highlight the student’s otherness;
• do not lower your expectations for students whom you feel - based on specific background characteristics - might underperform. Have high expectations for all students;
• contemplate how you interact with students: do you give credit to the answers of all your students? Do you press all students for the correct answer (e.g. using subquestions)? Who will you call to account if there is a disturbance in class?  Do you act similarly for all students in the same circumstances? 

 

Want to Know More?

• Agirdag, O., Van Houtte, M., Stevens, P.A.J. (2011). Why Does the Ethnic and Socio-economic Composition of Schools Influence Math Achievement? The Role of Sense of Futility and Futility Culture, European Sociological Review, 28(3), 366-378. 
• Colak, F.Z., Van Praag, L. & Nicaise, I. (2020): 'Oh, this is really great work - especially for a Turk': a critical race theory analysis of Turkish Belgian students' discrimination experiences, Race Ethnicity and Education, DOI: 10.1080/13613324.2020.1842351
• Kohli, R., Arteaga, N., & McGovern, E. R. (2018). “Compliments” and “Jokes”: Unpacking Racial Microaggressions in the K-12 Classroom. Microaggression theory: Influence and implications, 228.
• Pérez Huber, L., & Solorzano, D. G. (2015). Racial microaggressions as a tool for critical race research. Race Ethnicity and Education, 18(3), 297-320. DOI: 10.1080/13613324.2014.994173
• Rubie-Davies, C., Hattie, J. and Hamilton, R. (2006). Expecting the best for students: Teacher expectations and academic outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 5, 429– 444.
• Sue, D.W., Lin, A.I., Torino, G.C., Capodilupo, C.M., & Rivera, D.P. (2009). Racial microaggressions and diffiuclt dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 183-190. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014191
• van den Bergh, L., Denessen, E., Hornstra, L., Voeten, M., Holland, R. (2010). The Implicit Prejudiced Attitudes of Teachers. Relations to Teacher Expections and the Ethnic Achievement Gap, American Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 497–527.